Response #1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Response 1 - Essay ExampleI agree with writer when she quotes Aristeas, If God is creator of everything, why should His legality be so severe? Indeed, all creatures are equal and therefore eating some and avoiding others is morally wrong. In fact, I believe that religious scriptures should be interpreted in broader sense of contemporary issues when being vegetarian has become more relevant because it is healthier.The article gives revealing insight into the religious scriptures and cultural paradigms that guide humans society. Religion is important because it helps people to conform to certain rules and guidelines that help them to live peacefully within a society. The socio-religious groups become important pillars of society that promote horny and social stability and motivate people towards good life that takes into considerations the welfare of others. But at the same time, I believe that the tenets of scriptures should be interpreted with pliable beliefs that can encompass t he changing environment. God as the creator is fundamental tenet that unifies diverse cultural and religious beliefs and therefore, religious and cultural diversity should be looked from the wider perspective of what is right. Consequently, Leviticus dietary guidelines should not be treated as divine laws and people should eat what they like and what is good for their health. (words

Capitalism and Marxism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Capitalism and Marxism - Essay Example(Elson 1998, p. 53)In view of the Marxist globalization has been seen as an expansion or using of capitalism in the world. Like other traditional works that were seen to fit in a loose framework of anti-globalization, Marxism may not be expound as a single movement nor fanny it be described as following a unitary intellectual practice from a metaphysical perspective. In this case we should understand that Marxism as whole has been engaging with contemporary phenomena in a way that the manner and the mindsets that it has been postulating in the past has been evidence in class, political economy, labor, capitalism and in many other socialism concepts and revolution described as the central axis of globalization. (Ollman 1998, p.87)With the end of communism in eastern Europe in the 1990s, and the consequent embrace of the capitalism like in the Peoples Republic of China, has been evince as the end of the Marxisms period. Regardless of the fact that the world has embraced the capitalism economies, Marxism still present a poignant and painful way of accounting for globalization. This has been witnessed in what is happening in the aftermath of the wave that took the world from 1990s. Marxism has been expressed in many areas like the free-markets, oppressed and exploited labor, modernization, and many other reforms that hold back been carried out in the political, social and economic systems of the world. Globalization has been described as increase interaction of the world or the opening up the world. In the last few decades there has been increased movement of people and goods. There has been emergence of naked as a jaybird market. Therefore globalization has been a tendency to create a unipolar world though it has been expressed mostly in economic terms. It is increased integrating of the political, social and economic factors. (Beams, 19980Marxism and globalization in view of capitalismCapitalism which was so much arg ued about by Marxism has been one of the most important pivots that have led to the wave of globalization. There have been increased movements of capital across borders leading to immense change in the way we do things and the way we sire things. Globalization therefore can be seen as a cosmopolitan character which signifies production and consumption in all countries. Globalization places the local and the study conditions in terms of self sufficiency and the creation of the universal system of interdependences. As capitalism takes over the world under the nose of globalization, it has led to fall in the border of feudalism and mercantilism. Capitalism is therefore ever moving and ever-changing. It forces human being to change their reality and their own role in the world. (Fredrick 1975, p. 4) According to Marxism left revolution was described to occur out of development of the product forces which run into conflict with the social relations of capital. In this case Marx expla ins the negative effect that can be brought about by the forces of capitalism. Marx tried to show the creative-destructive forces of capitalism which is very well tied together with reason of economic advancement of the world. Therefore Marxism expressed that these creative destructive forces goes beyond history of establishment of the socialism society. One

Impact of Gay Marriage on Children Essay Example for Free

Impact of Gay Marriage on Children EssayTake a look at the picture of a homo and a sapphic couple (see Figure 1). Long ago concourse would give way raised their eyebrows and gl atomic number 18d at such obvious display of affection surrounded by two men and two women. They would have scurried away and cursed them who engaged in activities that compromise morality. They would have felt anger to know that a man would neverthe little think of weding other man or a woman to another woman. But years later, this picture has be bring forth normal. Wherever people go, they see jovial and lesbian couples. They ar everywhere.And the government has excessively come to accept this phenomenon, although thither atomic number 18 still debates whether homo espousal ceremony, or same-sex wedlock, should be legalized and accepted. Gay wedding party has been matchless of the critical issues still not resolved and still plagued lots of people today. There are debates and protest s whether this should be legalized or accepted in the society. Many are strongly against gay espousal because of their various beliefs about espousal itself. On the other hand, many are also for gay marriage because they think that marriage is all about equality and freedom to choose and decide.However, we moldiness look at what gay marriage does to the kidskinren, because they are also adversely affected by this. This paper allow show that gay marriage (the term bequeath be used interchangeably with same-sex marriage in this paper), has a negative tinct on children. In 1989, Denmark granted registered partnership to same-sex couples Norway, in 1993 Sweden, in 1994 and Iceland, in 1996. Other countries in Europe, such as France, Germany, Finland, the Netherlands and Belgium also did the same ( downwind Badgett 2). Meezan and Rauch inform that gay marriage (or same-sex marriage) is a reality in the united States and other parts of the world.They added that for the counsels o f same-sex marriage, it is a civil rights issue. For the opponents, it is a matter of morality. Both sides are correct, but nigh importantly, it is a family-policy issue which has not been regarded with the right amount of attention in the American scene (97). The most important question to be considered is How give same-sex marriage affect the well-being of children? The statistics showed significant trends. In 2007, Craft reported that in 1976 alone, there were about 300,000 to 500,000 gay and lesbian parents. In Bahamas alone, the number of homosexuals is increasing.Many of these, who maintain their homosexuality secret, have positions in companies and in governments. The Rainbow Alliance of The Bahamas showed that gay individuals makes up five percent while bisexuals make up 29 percent of The Bahamas world (see Chart 1). Additionally, there are about eight to 10 million children living in gay and lesbian households. It is estimated that the number of gay and lesbian people w ho are interested to come children is nearly two million. The highest concentration of follow children living with homosexual parents could be install in California.These children tend to be younger. Gates, Lee Badgett, Chambers and Macomber estimated that there were about 65,000 adopted children living in a gay or lesbian household. Moreover, out of the estimated 3. 1 million gay and lesbian households in U. S. , 1. 6 percent includes an adopted child under the age of 18 (7) (see Table 1). In the Frequently Asked Questions bind by The American polite Liberties Union (ACLU) marriage is all about love, commitment, sharing and compromise. It should not be denied to couples average because of their sex marriage is a personal choice.However, many believed that the purpose of marriage is procreation producing children is the natural end of marriage (Cline). Since gay marriage is unnatural (it cant produce children), Cline said that it would violate this very idea. It would undermin e marriage because it is a moral institution for promoting and protecting procreation. Although this paper posits that gay marriage has positive impact on children, it is still important to look at both(prenominal) views about the same-sex marriage in order to make light of the things which are significant for the welfare of the children. Impact on ChildrenWhy should the children be considered when it comes to same-sex marriage? Children are helpless, according to Kurts. They rely upon adults. They need the society to provide them with institutions that keep them safe from chaos. Additionally, they cannot articulate their postulate and cannot even vote. But, they are society. They are the future of the world. These are just some of the reasons why childrens well-being must be supported and encouraged. Baskerville is right in saying that the impact of gay marriage on children wasnt paid very much attention because the focus was on the debate over gay marriage.It is important to re cognize the needs of the children because they deserve to grow in an surround where they have two legally recognized parents (Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health). Their relationship with their parents, the Committee furthered, must be stable and recognized. This must apply to all, whether the parents are of the other or of same sex. For those who advocate gay marriage, they said that gay marriage will have positive impact on the children. In an article by Sara Miles, she argued that banning gay marriage will deny children justice since marriage is good for kids.It is true that marriage is good for kids. Most of the literature about marriage would indicate that marriage brings positive outcomes for the children as it provides them with warm, close relationships with their parents. Advocates of gay marriage believe that these reasons must be supportn into consideration and let someone marry whoever he wants to marry. Cline reported that those who oppose gay marriage will do anything to keep it from being legalized. However, there will come a time when gay marriage will be legal and recognized. In fact, there were actions taken in other countries to make this possible.With the rise of the issue of gay marriage in America, other areas were also considered, such as adoption of children. Baskerville quoted what Democratic state Sen. Therese Murphy. She believed that almost half of all adopted children in Massachusetts live in households with homosexually-behaving adults. Baskerville added that allowing gay couples to have children, or to give them the right to adopt, is nearly the same as granting them the right to claim the children of a couple. The question here is whether the biological parents will agree to be separated from their children.This is made easy by the governments initiative to give other peoples children to gay or lesbian couples. The government also has the power to take hold up the children from their biological parent s even though the parents did not do something that would make the government take back the children. This is because the government now had the incentive and the means to take children from their parents with no due process. Baskerville reported that the 1974 Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) gives financial incentives to the states to supplant children from their original parents.As a result, CAPTA became instrumental in tearing children away from their parents. Additionally, the federal funds went to the foster- mete out providers. Even now, there are still children removed from their families contempt the fact that foster homes were more than abusive than the childrens original families. This paradox existed for a long time until the government idea of another program. The government provided another program to solve the problem created by CAPTA, which is the 1997 Adoption and Safe Families Act.It provided more financial assistance to transfer children from f oster care to adoption. This expanded the client foot of stakeholders who had vested financial interest in available children. Gay marriage, it seemed, made this even worse. Baskerville reported that through having kids adopted by gay couples, the government officials can take advantage of the adoption. These government officials can very well benefit through the funds that are set for the Act. Rekers provided three reasons on why Arkansas has taboo homosexually-behaving adults from being given license to be foster parents.First The inherent nature and structure of households with a homosexually-behaving adult uniquely endangers foster children by exposing them to a substantial level of harmful stresses that are over and above usual stress levels in lawful person foster homes. (Rekers 2) This means that those children entering foster care usually have high incidence of psychological disorder. Rekers explained that if homosexual parents adopted those children, they (the children) are likely to be at risk of psychological harm and maladjustment.This happens when the children are exposed in greater stress brought upon them by the mere presence of a homosexual in a foster home. Moreover, Rekers believed that the children are affected in such a way that they are at risk of depression or psychological disorders (2). Second, Rekers reasoned out the relationships between homosexually-behaving adults tend to be less stable and short-lived, unlike the relationship between a married man and woman. Therefore, this would not be appropriate for children because they will be easily influenced.Furthermore, Rekers believed that suicidal attempt, plaza abuse, psychological disorders and breakups happen most often with homosexual partners. Thus, they are incapable of providing a secure and stable home that foster children needed. And if children are to be adopted by these homosexually-behaving adults, it would mean that children will be removed and transfer to another home. Sometimes the transition is traumatic for these children. Third, the household structure of foster-parents consisting of one or more homosexually-behaving members denies children their needs for adjustment that can be found in heterosexual foster homes.Rekers backed this third reason by explaining that unlike heterosexual households, a household with homosexually-behaving adults lack the concrete role of a cause and a father, which is necessary for the growth and development of children. Additionally, homosexual households lack the role of a mother and a father in raising children. Also, the children have no chance to witness a husband/wife relationship, which the society thinks is socially stable and healthier for the children.Rekers said that the children who live with a married man and woman are better adjusted compared to those who live in households with homosexually-behaving adults. Children in foster care must be placed with heterosexual married couple because this will pr ovide them with their needed benefits and whizs to better child adjustment. A body of work presented by Jacobs in her article showed that nearly all 50 studies make on the children of gay and lesbian couples (between six and 14 million in the United States) showed no significant exit between children raised by heterosexual or homosexual couples.However, those who oppose gay marriage argued that most of the studies done were small, there were methodological flaws, and mostly were politically biased. Jacobs reported a study which showed that theres no significant take issueence whether a child is raised by a gay or lesbian parents. In short, a child with gay or lesbian parents does not necessarily make him different from his peers. However, Jacobs presented some interesting findings from other researches regarding these differences. She mentioned that in 2001, Judith Stacey, a sociologist, and her colleague, Timothy Biblarz, found out that there are, in fact, some differences.The y said that although gay and lesbian parenting is not harmful for children, those who have gay parents differ in some ways from those who have heterosexual parents. For instance, a study headed by Susan Golombok concluded that having homosexual parents does not encourage their children to become homosexuals. However, the daughters of lesbians were more candid to the idea of being attracted to the same gender than the daughters of heterosexual mothers. Another finding was that out of the 25 children of lesbians, six of them had had relationship with someone of the same gender.The 21 children of heterosexual mothers did not have a relationship with the same gender. Kurts countered that gays have special case because the difficulties and challenges they experience are not from discrimination of marriage. The challenges and difficulties are due to the problem of sexual difference. He added that marriage is just a consolation for the challenges that are usual in situations faced by gays . Although gays are much tolerated in the United States, using marriage for the wrong purpose will not change the situations of gays.Instead, it will be the end of marriage, and the protection it provides for the children who are helpless. Gay marriage will also have an effect on heterosexual marriage. Supporting gay marriage, according to Gallagher (qtd. in Darby), would mean that the courts will not fully support the views of those who advocate heterosexual marriage. Moreover, if heterosexual marriage is confirmed as a special institution that must be protected and upheld, the number of fatherless children will decrease. straight person marriage will prevent the incidences of children born outside marriage. Kotulski (qtd. in Darby) contradicted this by saying that there will still be fatherless children. There will be factors that would continue to break families, such as poverty and violence. Other Effects Pawelski et. al have noted some other cause of same-sex marriage to child ren. These effects, as noted, were experienced at different levels. In the psychosocial level, gay and lesbian individuals usually undergo peer rejection, harassment, depression or isolation. In fact, Pawelski et.al reported that almost half (47%) of gay and lesbian teens have thought about committing suicide while 36% actually attempted. Oftentimes, these individuals experience rejection from their loved ones, maltreatment in schools, homelessness, and violence. As adults, they experience discrimination, marginalization and violence. Various debates over the issue of same-sex marriage intensified the unstable environment for the homosexuals in the society. Lack of support and acceptance for them and their children will have effects on their physical and psychosocial health and safety.The children of gay or lesbian couples may, in the same way, experience marginalization and discrimination by those who do not approve of gay or lesbian parenting. More often, these children do not kno w how or where to find support. Even alliances in schools that admit straight gays can make the situation worse. Pawelski et. al reported that children are brought into long-term partnerships with gay and lesbian parents through surrogacy, adoption and alternative insemination. Their study also delved into the attitudes and behavior, character and adjustment of parents when it comes to parenting.The authors found out that there were only few differences recorded regarding the comparison between lesbian and heterosexual mothers psychological adjustment, self-esteem and attitudes about child rearing. Lesbian mothers, the study showed, passed the psychological assessments and interviews. Furthermore, the study showed that the attitudes of lesbian mothers did not differ much from those of heterosexual mothers. In the same way, gay fathers did not differ much from nongay fathers. In fact, there are more similarities than differences.However, there is concern over the effect of the parent s sexual orientation on the children because this might lead to embarrassment and thus keep the children from interacting with their peers. It was found out that the children of divorced lesbian mothers experienced more teasing from peers during childhood than the children of divorced heterosexual mothers. It is of interest that Pawelski et. al mentioned that the children who grew up with gay or lesbian parents were more tolerant of diversity and more nurturing than those children with heterosexual parents.Pawelski et. al mentioned another study which showed that children of heterosexual parents considered themselves more aggressive. Their parents and teachers regarded them as more domineering, bossy and negative. On the other hand, the children of lesbian parents considered themselves as more lovable. Their parents and teachers regarded them as more responsive, affectionate and protective of other younger children. Another study showed that the self-esteem, aggressiveness and socia bility of children with lesbian parents and those with heterosexual parents have similarities.There were also studies conducted which showed that children of lesbian parents who were satisfied with their relationships have fewer behavioral problems and were better adjusted. There was also a study by the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health wherein the population consisted of 12105 adolescents in the United States. The authors found out that 44 adolescents, ranging from 12 to 18 years old, who were living with two women, were similar to others who have heterosexual parents when it comes to measures of anxiety, depression, self-esteem and school success.There were also similarities regarding family relationships, care from others, neighborhood integration, regardless of whether the children come from opposite-gender or same-gender families (Pawelski et. al). Since the legalization of same-sex marriage in Massachusetts back in 2004, researches today showed that it may have positive impact in strengthening the ties between couples, their children and extended families. It is interesting to note, however, that a large number of young people in America seemed to support gay and lesbian issues.Olander, Kirby and Schmitt mentioned a survey done by the Council for Excellence in Government (CEG) and CIRCLE which asked young people from 15 to 25 years old their perspective about the rights of homosexuals. The survey found out that youths supported gay and lesbian issues such as protection in housing, employment and hate crime, legal partnerships or civic unions and the ability to adopt children (2). There are others who view gay marriage on a positive note. Carpenter believed that gay marriage helps children.He said that gay parenting like a shot is very common in the United States, and that there are children in every gay and lesbian household. He did not seem to agree that children are better raised by a married man and woman. He furthered that gay marriag e will not take away children from their biological parents. Although there is no reported shortage of children, the number of married couples is not enough to raise these children. And this is the reason why singles and unmarried couples are allowed sub-optimal parenting.Carpenter thought that this arrangement is better than foster care where the effects on children are unfavorable. Brinkmann countered Carpenters views. She believed that if a child is exposed to both sexes in a household, it will have positive effects on his developmental needs. She explained that this aids them in forming their sexual identity. Since the breakdown of marriage in the country had negative effects especially on children, it must be considered that a heterosexual marriage will provide the children stability with regards to family relationships.Brinkmann furthered that without heterosexual marriage, the society will disintegrate. Times have changed and more changes will manifest in the future. Amidst t hese changes, the welfare of children who are affected by gay marriage must be the utmost consideration. This means that backing heterosexual marriage will be beneficial for these children. The government and families must make sure that every step of the way, these children will be encouraged and supported. Their needs must be met in order for them to grow as responsible citizens in our society.

Management Consultancy Services Essay Example for Free

Management Consultancy Services EssayFollowing the Enron case and others, the place and bureau of nonrecreational advisers within corporate administration was thrown into open focus and as a result the paid counsel bodies across the world revisited their policies on various regulatory mechanisms. The policies formulated by Institute of Management Consultancy, United Kingdom is taken as a reference in the discussions below. The general principles are summarized. Self- legislation is best delivered through a modern, professional approach, i.e. through standards backed by disciplinary arrangements that are supported by external validation and a Code of Professional Conduct and Ethical Guidelines that mount to all members. A framework is required at the organizational and individual level to batten that clients are able to make an informed decision rough their choice of consultancy advice. A sector-wide definition of direction consultancy should be developed that will as sist in a number of ways, including the debate around self-regulation, and be sufficiently flexible to accommodate new providers of consultancy. The sector-wide definition should be Management consultancy is the provision to management of objective advice and assistance relating to the strategy, structure, management and operations of an organization in chase of its long-term purposes and objectives. Such assistance whitethorn include the identification of options with recommendations the provision of an excess resource and/or the implementation of solutions. The definition of a management adviser should be Management consultants are those organisations and/or individuals that participate in the process of management consultancy within a framework of appropriate and relevant professional disciplines and morality designed for the activity of management consultancy. The principle of detailed technical regulation of management consultancy should be rejected and that the essential sk ills of consulting are primarily behavioral, stressing the importance of competences and estimable standards. Any regulatory regime requires a significant element of independence from the profession in terms of membership and operation. The option of a regulatory administration that provides easily accessible information from clients on the performance of firms and individuals should be considered carefully. The global reputation of consultancy means that the complexities of jurisdiction and applicable law film to be taken into account and the dangers of regulatory systems being mappingd as restraints on traffic or for the furtherance of the interests of trade blocs recognized. The question of the interaction of parallel regulatory systems inescapably to be explored thoroughly with a wide range of professional and trade bodies. Management consultancy is immensely competitive. Any self-regulatory regime must not fetter the aptitude of management consultants to compete for st emma, with the opportunities for other companies that they may bring. The Government does not have a formal role in regulating the profession of management consultancy. Its role is to encourage and support stakeholders in management consultancy, including clients and other institutes, to develop a system that protects users and enables the UK profession to compete in a global market place.2.PROFESSIONAL CONSULTANCY ORGANIZATIONS CHALLENGEStraditionally the state has awarded associations of professionals the privilege of self-regulation in return for an assurance that members abide by a set of standards and an ethical code of conduct to ensure protection of the existence interest. As increasing levels of education and social awareness give rise to greater expectations traditional structures, rules and regulations are challenged and justification for privilege is questioned. The position of trade and professional bodies is overly made more complex by the increasing demand from mem bers for such bodies to defend them from these pressures. This representational role has to be balanced carefully against the public protection responsibility. The regulatory function itself is not without its pitfalls. They are cent red on ensuring that everyone in the market is covered, how any regulations are to be enforced and as well possibly ensuring that restrictive trade practices legislation is not used against them. All such arrangements are potentially unstable and perhaps are held together preponderantly by the fear of more onerous statutory regulation.But these difficulties are compounded in an international environment. The increasing globalization that result in growth of a single market mean that the developments of rules and regulations concerning two ripostes competition amongst professionals and standardization of qualifications are of particular concern. But the profession is also global in nature and regulation has also to be seen in against a shifting patt ern of international trading and political structures. One driver for reassign is seen as ..deregulation and privatization, unite with a gradual shifting of policy-making to the global level.If regulation is the refer, what form should it take? It can be introduced at a number of levels, i.e. the activity (technical regulation) individuals (standards and qualifications) firms (the trade association model) or the profession as a whole (ethics and principles). All of them have their difficulties. Some believe that the accounting profession in the ground forces had the victimize approach, i.e. Based on strict shackle to rules, it inadvertently encouraged innovations of the worst kind creative accounting.3. SHOULD MANAGEMENT CONSULTANCY BE REGULATED?There is, equally, the view that regulation is not required at all. The market will regulate itself. This, of course, ignores that fact that business takes place within a societal framework and the view that the market is the ultimate regulator is, surely, flawed. It is based on the notion, sound in theory but questionable in practice, that the market is a perfect mechanism. Others suggest that the cabalistic lies in the education of the client to make it an informed marketplace. It also has to balanced with the view that, if management consultancy wishes to be seen as professional, Professional awareness and behavior travel along when the early juggling with a little knowledge gives way to skilled application of a generally authorized body of knowledge according to accepted standards of integrity. It is also the case that the development of partnerships between clients and professional service firms (including investment by the latter in the former) may well limit the willingness of clients to shop around.The key question then is what is regulation for. In essence of course it is to ensure that the customers or stakeholders receive the goods and services that they need and that the suppliers claim to provide. In the case of management consultancy this must mean that clients receive the best possible advice to help them in taking their organizations forward. In a market dominated by a a few(prenominal) global brands, it is about extending the transparency and extent of choice to enable clients to choose on the basis of expertise, quality of delivery and cost. It is also about balancing the need to extend these principles down from the firm to the individual and the costs of any system.The government view has been that good self-regulation coupled with demanding industry and people standards help companies compete in a global marketplace. When combined with effective self-regulatory systems and where appropriate supporting mechanisms exist to encourage good practice and resolve cross-border disputes, this development will reduce barriers and pretend a single market worldwide.4. STEP 1 IN REGULATAION WHO ARE MANAGEMENT CONSULTANTS?A number of definitions have been developed in recent ye ars. The future(a) is a small selectionManagement consultants are used first to provide wider additional expertise than is available within a single organization. consequently a change in production or marketing may require expertise in designing and implementing a new system. Secondly, management consultants are used to provide objective appraisals where it is often easier for the expert outsider to see the broader picture and recognize the long-term requirements. Thirdly, the management consultant may be needed to provide additional assistance where there is a temporary increase in the management workload. This may be to cope with a major change or new development in any area of management responsibility.The rendering of independent advice and assistance on management issues. This typically includes recogniseing and investigating problems and/or opportunities, recommending appropriate action and helping to implement those solutions.Management consulting is an independent profes sional advisory service assisting mangers and organizations in achieving organizational purposes and objectives by solving management and business problems, identifying and seizing new opportunities, enhancing learning and implementing changes.The term Management Consultancy applies when a firm is engaged for a definitive duration to undertake specific enquiries, conduct studies, identify options and make recommendations or give advice of a strategic nature relating to the organization, management and operation of the organization for consideration/implementation.These definitions or descriptions have a number of threads in common. They are concerned with management issues of a significant, although not necessarily strategic, importance. Secondly, they are concerned with the role of the expert outsider. Finally, they extend the role of management consultants beyond advice and into implementation. victorious these threads into account the Institute believes that the sector-wide defin ition should be Management consultancy is the provision to management of objective advice and assistance relating to the strategy, structure, management and operations of an organization in avocation of its long-term purposes and objectives. Such assistance may include the identification of options with recommendations the provision of an additional resource and/or the implementation of solutions.Some have raised the issue of whether, if the professional activity is defined, the role of the individual management consultant also needs to be placed within a definitional framework.5.REGULATION WIDER ISSUESConversely, it is likely to be the case that others, even if introduced for the best of reasons, may see any system of regulation, as a restraint of trade. The danger is that the introduction of any self-regulatory system may also require an accompanying increase in bureaucracy and industry overheads and that the perceived failure of any such system may provoke a call for statutory intervention.The potential costs of any regulatory regime, however light its touch, are also of concern when Government does not seem to prize the costs, whether financial or opportunity, that may arise. Additional administration for practices and activity by professional bodies require resourcing and, in many cases, it is practitioners who have to bear the burden.The reality is that management consultancy, like every other business, is immensely competitive. Any regulatory proposals must take into account the need for the consulting profession to retain flexibility to adapt to a new global and technology-driven world. While global practices dominate the market, internal consultancies within domestic companies are turning to external and, hence, foreign markets, for business and small practices in niche markets are also competing on a global stage. The key is responding to the needs of clients rather than a regulatory regime that will always be behind developments in the marketpl ace.6.CODE OF ETHICS INSTITUTE OF MGMT CONSULTANTS, USAAll IMC USA members pledge in writing to abide by the Institutes Code of Ethics. Their adherence to the Code signifies voluntary assumption of self-discipline. The Code specifiesClients* Members will serve their clients with integrity, competence, and objectivity, using a professional approach at all times, and placing the best interests of the client higher up all others.* Members will establish realistic expectations of the benefits and results of their services.* Members will treat all client information that is not public knowledge as confidential, will hold open it from access by unauthorized people, and will not take advantage of proprietary or privileged information, either for use by them, their firm or another client, without the clients permission.* Members will avoid conflicts of interest, or the appearance of such, and will disclose to a client any circumstances or interests that might influence their idea and ob jectivity.* Members will refrain from inviting an employee of an current or previous client to consider alternative employment without prior discussion with the client.Engagements* Members will only accept assignments which they occupy the expertise to perform, and will only assign staff with the requisite expertise.* Members will ensure that before accepting any engagement a mutual concord of the objectives, scope, work plan, and fee arrangements has been established.* Members will offer to withdraw from a consulting engagement when their objectivity or integrity may be impaired.Fees* Members will agree in advance with a client on the basis for fees and expenses, and will charge fees and expenses that are reasonable, legitimate and commensurate with the services delivered and the responsibility accepted.* Members will disclose to their clients in advance any fees or commissions that they receive for equipment, supplies or services they could recommend to their clients.Profession* Members will respect the individual and corporate rights of clients and consulting colleagues, and will not use proprietary information or methodologies without permission.* Members will represent the profession with integrity and professionalism in their relations with their clients, colleagues and the general public.* Members will report violations of this Code to the Institute, and will ensure that other consultants working on beone-half of the member abide by this Code.The Institute of Management Consultants USA, Inc. (IMC USA) adopted its first Code of Ethics in 1968. Since that time IMC USA has modified the wording of the Code for additional clarity and relevance to clients. The current Code was approved February 22, 2002. It is consistent with the International Code of Professional Conduct print by the International Council of Management Consulting Institute (ICMCI) of which IMC USA is a founding member.Members who apply for the CMC (Certified Management Consultant) designa tion must pass a written trial on the application of the IMC USA Code of Ethics to client service. The CMC mark is awarded to consultants who have met high standards of education, experience, competence and professionalism.7.CODE OF ETHICS THE GROUND REALITYThis subject is based on an Ethics Survey conducted by the Institute of Management Consultants among American business consulting clients of IMC members who are Certified Management Consultants (CMCs).Results* Over-promising expected results and/or benefits (Nearly half of the respondents-46%)* Not serving the best interest of the client (32%)* Under-delivering results vs. commitment (31%)A high percentage of respondents40%indicated that they believe professional service firms would lie to protect themselves. cardinal percent (39%) also indicated that they think employees would lie to protect themselves. Counterbalancing this, however, was the expression of 54% of the respondents who indicted that in a difficult situation, th ey believe employees will behave honorably. Half of the respondents also believe that professional service firms do place a high value on the welfare of the clients organization. It can therefore be concluded that temporary hookup business executives believe that both(prenominal) employees and professional service firms do have an interest in the success and welfare of the organization/enterprise, they also feel that both groups would be inclined to act to protect their own interest or enhance their own position-an action which could inevitably be to the detriment of the enterprise.Two additional issues in which professional service firms can be faulted by business executives included* Allowing the projects scope to expand/creep. (One-fourth of the respondents indicated this was happening frequently.)* Being imprecise or non-specific when condition expectations. (Only 19% indicated that this happens frequently, yet 68% indicated this occasionally happens.)

Used In Researching Audiences Media Essay

Used In Researching Audiences Media EssayMethods concentrate on counting and statistics and focus on in-depth analysis of entropy dissemination. According to Hartley (2002, p. 11), The earreach is a construction motivated by the paradigm in which it is imagined, that is to say the incompatible paradigms may cause the location of the audiences role to be disparate. To look on this, various orders be needed. Referring to heathenish studies, quantitative and qualitative ar two of the most(prenominal) widely used methodologies in the field of audience research in which, moreover, qualitative methods swallow been regarded as generally preferable because they place emphasis on ethnic ungenerousing (Barker, 2012). Specifically, ethnography and hearing are two of the most popular methods which be massive to qualitative methods and have been widely used in audience research during 1980s-1990s.This paper will focus on ethnography method and reference method and then critically analyze them by reviewing relevant studies. It will construct by three parts. The first and the bet on part will lay out the theoretical dimensions separately of these two methods with looking at the advantages and limitations of them by using the leading research projects from 1980s-1990s for example Dorothy Hobsons research on housewives with radio and televisionJanice Rad flairs research on women memorialiseing the romanceDavid Morley focuses on the Nationwide audience. In part three, these two methods will be compared and contrasted. ethnography used to be taken in anthropology piece of work primordially, which is a branch of science describing a kind of culture or ethnic convocations. Essentially, the ethnography method is a holistic comment of pagan membership (Lindlof and Taylor, 2002). Specifically, according to Fetterman (1989), it is a process take off with in-depth and rich investigating, followed by interview, record review, perspectives assessing, exploring the o rganizational connections, and finally spell a report to be published. The characteristics of ethnography notify be divided into three aspects rootagely, it uses the holistic research viewpoint. The ethnographer attempts to describe the culture or the social convocation th ferocious with(predicate) the research of history, religion, politics, economy, and surround therefore, it emphasizes the contextualization of data (ibid). Similarly, Geertz (1973, p.16) highlights that ethnography is thick description, ethnographers grasp the complexity of social community and culture by using this thick description and restore audiences interpretation from a small range of textstructure to social and historical environment. Secondly, in this process, ethnographers should keep an open mind, trying not to admit out any information. They do not mind spending several hours up to now only chatting with interviewees they do a great spile of observation so that they can truly understand the tru ly lives of audiences via equal communications. With discourse analysis, researchers can trace the social power factors behind the words which interviewees have said. However, this does not mean that researchers can contribute the interview with no explicit objectives a framework reflects their own intention is still needed to carry on an open sprint interview, seeking information as much as possible. This issue was pointed out as with an open mind not an empty head by Fetterman (1989, p. 1). Thirdly, fieldwork is the most important factor in designing ethnographic method. Ruddock (2001) states that ethnography is attractive because it is based on naturally occurring data rather than artificial materials. This method requires researchers conduct the fieldwork in a natural environment entering into the community of audiences instead of sitting in their offices and doing research in written form. It usually involves in-depth observation and investigating of a specialised audience group or some cases. As Hammersley and Atkinson(1983cited in Barker, 2000) highlight that, researchers often immerse in the context, they participate in peoples routine liveness for a long period of time, observing what happens, watching the audiences, listening to their opinions, asking questions, analyzing what people do with media, and how they make sense of it. Above all, using ethnography in audience research compensates for the inadequacies of past studies. Ethnographic audience research had become a trend in the 1980s, and there were several studies becoming genuine works afterwards because they have adopted the ethnographic method.In the multiple cases of ethnography studies, Radways research which focuses on women reading the romantic fictions is recognized classic work. She connected the pleasure women felt in reading romantic fiction with the subordinate status of women in the patriarchal family and then investigated them and she found that the reason wherefore women read romantic fictions was related to evading the pressure of onerous housework. Radway (1984) demonstrates that the women treat reading the romance as a kind of independent declaration they seek to rebuild their sexual activity subjectivity in utopian fantasy in order to resist patriarchal culture. In early stage, her focus of care was text analysis, later changed to reception research. At that moment, the subject area of text was no longer important, but reading itself is the process which establish the meaning and pleasure between text and reader, and the results cannot be predicted by the text itself (Curran, 1991).It seems to be undoubted that breeding the Roman plays a vital role in culture studies, largely due to the important ethnographic finding of cultural consumption it provides. However, some debates challenge this view methodologist queries about empirical research and epistemology feminists argue the relationship between feminists and real women populist question i ts critical project. Modleski (1986, cited in Wood, 2004, ) accuses Reading the Romance has over liberated the pleasures the women get from reading fictions. Ang (1988, cited in Wood, 2004, ) states that the book does not take the possibilities of pleasure and fantasy seriously enough. Lauren Berlant (1987, cited in Wood, 2004) argues that Radway place too much emphasis on describing the female identity. Although there are many critics about her study, undeniably, the concept stressing the interacting between diverse disciplines which advocate by Reading the Romance lays a foundation in cultural studies and is regarded as a leading project for over twenty years, until now it has still been used as a compulsory reading for students to learn.In addition to print media, Dorothy Hobsons research on housewives and the mass media cannot be overlooked. The data is shown in Hobsons unpublished MA thesis A Study of Working-Class Women at Home Femininity, Domesticity and Maternity. Through talking with housewives, Hobson (1980, p. 85) found that television and radio are never mentioned as spare-time or blank activities but are located by the women as integral parts of their day. As for those housewives, television and radio were regarded as the important elements in their daily lives, even their work and rest time were formulated by broadcast. They considered the broadcast programs as a friend and a crucial way for them to contact with outside universe and to eliminate loneliness. Based on gender differences the understandings of television can also be divided into two worlds which means men and women have dissimilar preferences. This study marks the beginning of gender analysis on audience.Turner (1998) explains that Hobson did not take the audiences into the world of an academic researcher, while it was she who participated in their world. She entered into the audiences house, watching soap opera house with them, observing and interviewing them during that period. After the programs finished, she used to talk with the audiences in an open type for a long time. She asked the audience to determine what is interesting, what do they like or disapproval or what do they concern about in those programs they had watched before. The audiences were encouraged by her to tell the reason why the program is popular or why it is criticized by them.To conclude, both these two studies carried out by Hobson and Radway have great significance in the history of audience research. Hobsons study is the first time that ethnographer study on the female audiences, and it is considered to be the first time in the history that ethnography is truly applied in audience research. The main contribution of this study is that it states the specific meanings of gender in the case of dealing with housework. Radway concurs in and further develops Hosons viewpoint of gender differences she concerned with the common populaces power in domestic context of consumption. In terms o f the method in audience research, using ethnographic method should be a kind of progress or breakthrough and through because it has opened up an unprecedented field of research. The results of such research are conducted by the researchers personal participant experience. The aim of research changes from a one-sided issue extends to an overall background knowledge of daily life researchers get out of their offices and enter into common peoples living room experience their real lives at least the visible behavior in their lives. Although this approach is still debatable however, as Zoonen (1994146) claims, in terms of the location of the researchers, there is no single truth in the world the reason why we acknowledge the truth is due to the participation of researchers, they learn to tell us, or to depict comminuted map. However, some limitations are still exist in ethnography. First of all, the relationships between researcher and researched is difficult. Due to the fact that pe ople often tell the truth to whom they are familiar with, so it is not easy for researcher to unify into the community and to gain their trust. Ruddock (2001) notes that it is important to arrange researcher and researched in a relatively equal position. Moreover, ethnography requires researcher to stay with the community for a long period of time for instance, several months or even two or three years. Therefore it is a time-consuming task it may take a significant amount of human and material resource.InterviewMany researchers have found that interview is a contingently appropriate method to understand the experiences and opinions of researched. Kvale(1996, p. 1) proposes that if you deprivation to know how people understand their world and their life, why not talk with them? As a most widely used method, it has three remarkable characteristics to begin with, it is ordinarily a one-to-one, face-to-face conversation it involves individual interaction between researchers and rese arched. The interaction built by interview is different from those usually found in public lectures, meetings or group discussions. Holstein (2001) suggests the relationship between researcher and researched is like a kind of friendship because of the equal and intimate conversation. Livingstone(2010) points out that interviews adapt the way of research with rather than research on interviewees, it seems to be more personalized and humane. The second and the most important aspect is it is usually deep-going. The questions should not as naive as which magazine do you read? or how often do you read it?, they are much more complicated. It is conducted on the basis of individual matters for instance, interviewee themselves, cultural knowledge, personal experiences and opinions. Interview is a useful and effective way for researchers, which enables them to investigate the root driver of interviewees certain actions and their interpretations towards different circumstances. Lastly, inter view is commonly used in addition to other methods or collaborate with them to collecting data.David Morley uses interview method and applies Stuart Halls (1980) encoding/ decryption model (He claimed that a message cannot be regarded as a ball which is passed on one by one simply, it should be understood as a process which the program producer encode it and the audience decode it) to the empirical studies. Morley (1980) researches the BBC(British Broadcasting Corporation) evening news program Nationwide, and the purpose of this study is to test the audiences interpretations of television information and the different understandings related to their social classes or stratums. That is to say, through the Nationwide research, Morley tries to prove the process of meaning generated depends on the TV message and the social structure of the audience. Morley has arranged 29 groups of audiences according to their occupation, each group had 510 people. These 29 groups are divided into four types managers, students, TU officials and shop stewards. Morley made them watch two BBC evening news programs program A was Nationwide in May 10th, 1976 and program B was a similar program in March 29th, 1977. Then he used focused interview and group interview to investigate the diverse understandings from different groups. Focused interview analyzes some specific situations of the participants, which means to understand their subjective experience, and then get the responses of them. He transformed the accurate interview questions from open style to structuring type, such as do you think using the word to describe X is appropriate?(Morley, 1980). He believes that focused interview conforms to the natural situations, and the more structuring questions can make the topic even more real and natural.Morleys research provided empirical proof for Halls encoding/decoding model and it elicited strong repercussions in the field of mass culture while also incurred a lot of comment. Some scholars think Morleys study is not very successful, because it has not broken away from the traditional empirical study which considered the social backgrounds as variable quantity. Turner (1990) criticizes the research of Morley have several drawbacks Firstly, the community structure of the participants seems to be too simple dividing into four main categories. Moreover, the participants are not distributed in a natural situation, their interpretation are separated from the typical and real environment of television watching since general people usually watch television in the evening at home. So it is questionable whether their interpretations are reliable. Secondly, as participants are assigned with the people in same social class to watch TV programs, their interpretation can be influenced by others in the same group The last defect is in the the connection between television program and audiences are the viewers willing to watch Nationwide which Morley provide to them? The tel evision content are given by researcher instead of chosen by the audiences themselves, this situation makes the research biased. Morley (1986) also acknowledged that this research has ruined the result because of the rough supposition. Nevertheless, scholars still regard his study as an important turning-point in audience research, he transfers audience research from viewing the structure of text to exploring how the audience deal with the text, and the reformation makes a considerable impact on the development of reading ethnographic method (Moores, 1993). In the same way, Ang(2006) notes that The Nationwide Audience has generally been standard as an innovative departure within cultural studies, both theoretically and methodologically.For Morley himself, he has profoundly awarded from the deficiencies and revised methods in his later research to respond to the lit crit of this study. In 1986, Morley launched another study of audience research with interview methodFamily Televisio n. In this study, He aimed to find what affect peoples viewing experience, especially the interaction between family dynamics process and television-watching behavior. At first he attempted to study on the family social location and class identification however, he found that the principle through all the researched family is closely related to gender issue. So he began to study the gender differences impact on the viewing practices. He chose 8 topics and selected 18 households as a sample and the researchers personally entered in these families to interview the family members. The interviews aimed at both parents and children, generally last for one to two hours. In order to leave pose for thinking and asking questions, the entire interviewed process is not structured. Moreover, due to the presences of other family members, as well as the complicated interview questions, Morley was confident to get to the real interpretation. By using such a participation and observation method wi th interviews, Morley (1986) learned that the living-room politics heavily impact the family viewing reception so that it resulted in various viewing experiences for different family members. For these empirical differences, Morley recognizes it is not caused by the biological characteristics of men and women however, it depends on their different social roles in family. For men, family is a unemployed field, while it is more likely to be a workplace for women. Since domestic environment is constructed by gender relations, it leads to a variety of viewing experiences.However, Stevenson (2002) maintains that although Morleys study reflects the different patterns of media in constructing social life, such life is actually surpassing the fact of the belief. In other words, Morley tends to overly emphasize the importance of audiences interpretation capacity in ideology. Although there are some criticisms, the contribution of Morleys two studies cannot be ignored. Similarly, As Tuner (1 998) points out, Morleys study break through the theoretical model encoding/decoding put forward by Hall (1980), Hall concerned text is the key point of the way that viewers decode the text however, Morley focused on the social process itself of audience watching television. Turner (1998) confirms that Morleys study directly lead us to attach importance on the social forces which produces audience, reduce attention from text and audience. It stresses more extensive study on practice and discourse of everyday life.In summary, with facing (to) a totally unfamiliar world and objects, comprehensive examination and detailed descriptions are urgently needed. The holistic view and detailed fieldwork which contained by ethnography is in response to these needs. In other words, ethnography is a detailed report records the entire process and various kinds of approaches for researched. However, as all the other research methods, ethnography has its own limitation which is that not all of the s ocial activities can be measured via participant observation or personal interviews. For instance, ethnography cannot be used to research the events of the past, it only can be carried out at present. In addition, ethnography cannot handle large-scale case study, such as large organizations or the whole country (Hammersley Atkinson, 1983). With mention to interview, it is useful and effective in collecting data, researchers can understand the experiences and perspectives through communicating with researched. Moreover, interview is also a good way to make audiences feel equal and relax. However, it is not desirable for all of the audience research. For example, it may not be able to insight into the role of the people or organizations which are outside the world of personal life of interviewees.To conclude, as two of the most popular methods, ethnographic and interview are often used in cultural studies to explore indepth under a particular circumstances. As academic trends which grow out of specific historical context, and with the care of individual subjectivity, cultural studies always pays close attention to powers in practice of cultural phenomenon, constructing audiences as active users of media. It places audience in the social context therefore it breaks through the empirical audience research successfully. Even though scholars still have some controversy, the paradigm raised by the school of cultural studies really provides a different landscape of the interaction between audience and culture, which firmly establishes the characteristic status in audience research.Reading ListFetterman, D.M. (1989). Ethnography step by step. Newbury Park, CA SAGEHartley, J. 2002. Communication, cultural and media studies the key concepts. capital of the United Kingdom Routledge.Barker, C. 2000. cultural Studies surmisal and Practice. London SAGE.Lindlof, T.R. Taylor, B.C. 2002. Qualitative Communication Research Methods. California SAGE.Ruddock, A. 2001. reasona bleness audiences Theory and method. London SAGE.Geertz, C. 1973. The interpretation of cultures. New York Basic Books.Hobson, D.1980 Housewives and the mass media. In Hall, S (ed.), Culture, Media, wording Working Papers in Cultural Studies. London The Academic Division of Unwin Hyman, pp. 85-95Turner, G. 1998. British cultural studies An introduction. London Routledge.Purdie, S. (1992) Janice Radway, Reading the Romance, in M. Barker and A.Beezer (eds) Reading into Cultural Studies, pp. 148-64. London Routledge.Radway, J. 1986. Identifying Ideological Seams Mass Culture, Analytic Method, and Political Practice. Communication, 9, pp. 93-123.Wood, H. 2004. What Reading the Romance did for us? European Journal of Cultural Studies, 7(2), pp. 147-154.Zoonen, L.V. 1994. Feminist media studies. London SAGE.Sonia Livingstone, Giving population a Voice On the Crticial Role ofthe Interview in the History of Audience Research, Communication,Culture G. Critique 3 (4, 2010) 566-71Kvale, S. 1996. Interviews an introduction to qualitative research interviewing Interviews. London SAGE.Holstein, J.A. Gubrium, J. F. 2001. Handbook of Interview Research Context and Method. London SAGE.Morley, D. (1980).The Nationwide Audience Structure and Decoding. London British Film Institute.Tunner, G. 1990. Audience in British cultural studies. BostonUnwin Hyman.Morley,D. 1986. Family Television Cultural Power and Momestic Leisure. London Comedia.Moores, S. 1993. Interpreting audiences the ethography of media consumption. LondonSage.Ang, I. 2006 On the politics of empirical audience research. In Durham. M. G (ed.), Media and cultural studies keyworks. Oxford Blackwell, pp.174-194.Stevenson, K. 2002. Understanding Media Cultures Social Theory and Mass Communication. London SAGE.Hammersley, M. Atkinson, P.(1983). Ethnography Principles in practice.New York Tavistock.

Theories of Reflection in Teaching

Theories of Reflection in TeachingUnderstand the application of theories and models of radiateion and evaluation to reviewing profess practice.Analyse theories and models of reflexion and evaluation.Explain ways in which theories and models of reflection and evaluation can be applied to reviewing own practice. (use SWOT analysis if possible)IntroductionReflecting allows the instructor to mentally process, analyse and utilise an experiential companionship in changing and replicating an outcome. The use of reflection allows the tutor to progress in their tuition. David Berliner (1992) indicates that the tutor advances in phases waiver from novice to expertDonald Schon in his book The Reflective Practice (1983) introduced reflective practice in which he used John Dewys learning through fancy nonion, based on other theories of learning and development like Jean Pia desex, Kurt Lewin, William James and Carl Jung. Reflection according to Donald Schon is the talent of professional s to think what they atomic number 18 doing while they be doing it. He states that managing the indeterminate z bingles of professional practice requires the ability to think on the run and use previous survive to new conditions. This is important and needs the ability to reflect-in-action. As a teacher, I try to be student-centred, understanding, evidence-based and economical all at the same time. Schon also gives insight into how the reflective professional is formed. He describes the principal(prenominal) ideas asReflective Practicum A practicum is a setting created for the task of learning a practice D. Schon (1983). This links to learners learning by doing, with the tutors assistance. The practicum is reflective in two reasons its intention of helping learners becoming proficient in a type of reflection-in-action, and when it functions properly, it entails a tutor learner dialogue of teacher taking the form of joint reflection-in-action. (Argyris and Schon 1978)Tacit kno wledge arises from Michael Polanyis work where he describes the ability of picking out a familiar face in a crowd, without any thought, or a systematic features analysis. We can non tell how this is d 1 hence the knowledge is unspoken or tacitKnowing-in-action is also Schions idea which stems from the tacit knowledge concept. It is a type of knowledge that can be revealed in the manner we perform our duties and tackle problems. The knowing is in the action. It is shown by the skilful execution of the performance we are notably not able to make it verbally explicit. This tacit knowledge is obtained from investigations and also from the practitioners own reflections and experience.Reflection-in-action occurs whilst a problem is being addressed, in what Schon termed the action-present. It is a response to a confusion such that the expected outcome is out of our control. This reflective process is conscious, but may not be verbalised. Reflection-in-action is about challenging our ass umptions (since knowing-in-action is the tush of assumption). It is about mentation again, in a new way, about an already encountered issue.Reflection-on-action is reflection after the event. Carefully carried out and recorded, willing suspension of disbelief. This phrase was made use of by Samuel Taylor Coleridge for describing the method of committing into an experience without judgement, in order to learn from it. Schon applies the term in association with the concept of learning by doing. One cannot will oneself to believe until one understands. But understanding often will only come from experience D. Schon (1983). Hence there is a need for the experience to occur.Operative attention relates to the eagerness to use new information. This concept is partly obtained from Wittgensteins guinea pigion that the meaning of an operation can only be learned through its performance. It prepares the student for feedback on that employment and builds understanding.The Ladder of reflect ionArgyris and Schon describe a vertical dimension of analysis which occurs in the dialogue between student and tutor. In order to climb the flow you must reflect on an activity. In order to move down the ladder you move from reflection to experimentation. This being a ladder, you can also reflect on the process of reflection.From my point of view, this process assists to substitute stuck situations. Moving up or down the ladder is not essential as long as it assists tutor and learners in achieving together convergence of meaning.KolbKolbs theory and model relies on the idea that the tutor and learner learn by experience and then modify collected information into knowledge. Kolb was encouraged by both Dewy and Piaget in the 1970s as were many other theories.Concrete Experience (doing/having an experience) is the doing part which arises from the content and process of the classroom tuition together with other teaching duties and practices. Concrete experience also arises from ones own experience of being a learner.Reflective expression (reviewing/reflecting on the experience) associates with analysis and judgements of events and the discussion about the learning and teaching between tutor, mentor and colleagues. Tutors reflect on their teaching experiences specifically when they are not see and have seen a lesson that did not progress well. This may be called common-sense reflection. It is essential to express our reflections in some systematic way in order not to forget thoughts and develop on that experience for further reference. This might be carried out through self-reflections or evaluations after the event through keeping a log or journal. It might also include learner feedback and peer observation of teaching.Reflection in itself is not enough for promoting learning and professional development. Unless acted upon, reflection on its own without an action equals no development.Abstract Conceptualisation (concluding/learning from the experience) In ord er to plan what could be done differently next time, one must be informed by instructional theory and advancement, for example, through CPD. Reflection is therefore a middle ground that brings together theories and analysis of previous(prenominal) experiences. It allows a conclusion referring to practice.Active Experimentation (planning/trying out what you have learned) The conclusions formed at the Abstract Conceptualisation phase then create the basis for planned changes Active Experimentation. Active Experimentation then begins the cycle again To implement change in teaching practice, one generates further concrete experience which in turn creates reflection and review to form conclusions referent to the effectiveness of those changes.StrengthsWeaknessesSkills Organization, interpersonal communication, problem solving, multitasking, and creative abilities. nurture Postgraduate degree, Diploma in Education Training (in view)Experience One year teaching experienceNetworking Ha ve kept contact with teaching colleaguesCharacter traits Determined, hardworking, motivated, enduring, loyal, trustworthy, thrifty, and resourceful.Gaps in experience One year teaching experience which might not be enough for senior roles in the education sector. Not yet achieved a Qualified Teacher statusGaps in networking Need to know a wide range of key players in the education sector.OpportunitiesThreatsTechnology Online marketing, YouTube, mass communicationLegislation Government favours education sectorEconomy May be buoyant for career growth.Demographics of state Large population, city, lots of job opportunities.Geographical Schools and FE colleges are in the area.Sectors a lot growth in high-tech and hospitality sectors.Legislation Government regulations restrict some education institution practices in pending privacy laws.Social value Some people may discriminate against being a democrat in a republican state.Economy Current situations are terrible, unemployment is sky h igh.Demographics of Population because I live in a crowded area there is more competition.Geographical May have to move out of state to get a job.In analysing Kolbs theory model, I observed that it hugely depends on trying and re-trying of the complete instead of the step-by-step approach preferred by Argyris and Schon, the pitfalls are in the detection of small errors that lead to the complete inefficiency that could become enormous making smaller detail to be overlooked. The impact of the above-mentioned theories, models and principles amongst others is obvious in the reflective tutor and in my own practice, reflection is an importance aspect of my practice and Schons Ladder of reflection is an easy means of quantifying and analysing the advances and shortcomings of my practice, paving way for sound judgment and re-assessment of small aspects of teaching to be analysed and modified without changing the main part of the content and delivery.ReferencesArgyris, C., Schon, D. (1978) Organisational learning A theory of action perspective. Reading, Mass Addison Wesley.Berliner, D. (Ed.). (1992). Exemplary performances Studies of expertise in teaching.Reston, VA The National Art Education Association.Dewy, J. (19930 How we think. A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. (revised edition), Boston D. C. Heath.Kolb, D. A. (1984) Experiential Learning experience as a source of learning and development, New Jersey Prentice Hall.Schn, D. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner How professionals think in action. LondonTemple SmithSchon, D. (1991) The Reflective Practitioner How Professionals commend in Action, London Avebury

How Much Did Stalin Deviate From Marxism?

How Much Did Stalin Deviate From Marxism?Joseph Stalin can be, and has been, interpreted in many different meanss a sadistic terrorist who revelled in the misfortune and pain of his subjects, an egotistical dictator whose invariablyy action served to promote his own self-interests, the political servant of Vladimir Lenin, and the man who translated Communism into possible limits. Despite this organism a political and ideological ingest, in the case of Stalin it becomes impossible to consider his interpretation of Marxist-Leninism and his consequent leaders style without judgement of his character. The influence of his personality upon his leadership can be express to a primary motivation for many of the decisions which retain been made, including the impact of his tumultuous home life with regards to his wife and children, his desire to vagabond himself as a credible and important man which was perhaps inspired by his feelings of neglect from his father, and the increasing l unmatchedliness that came from his intense paranoia and fear of those around him. In an ideological sense, Stalins policies be indeed deviations from those which Lenin himself might crap implemented, however nonwithstanding again this may be as a consequence of the differing personalities of the two leaders. This study will aim to assess Stalinism as an ideology up to 1938, the end of The Great Terror and question whether it indeed deviated from Marxist-Leninism, whether it was instead a practical instruction execution of Communism in which communism principles ran through the core, or whether it was a whole different ideology, brought to power on a false platform of Communism.In order to make such assessments there must be a standard set of what Marxist Leninism is. In the same way that Stalin could be said to have interpreted Marxist-Leninism, Lenin interpreted Marxism. Thus Marxist-Leninism forms a filtered version of Marxs original theories. The cite principles of Communis m in Marxist barriers, as laid out in the Communist Manifesto, written in 1847 by Karl Marx, are as follows abolition of private plaza, progressive or graduated income tax, abolition of all in all rights of inheritance, confiscation of the property of all emigrants, centralisation of credit, national bank and an exclusive monopoly, centralisation of communication and transport, extension of centralisation of factories and performance by the responsibility, cultivation of waste- greases and the improvement of the soil, equal financial obligation of all to work, combination of agriculture with manufacturing industries, free education and religion and nationalities will be superseded by the principle of community.1 future(a) on from this, Lenin proposed that the proletariat can successfully achieve whirlingary consciousness only under the leadership of a political party of professional revolutionaries2, thereby reversing Marxs order of scotchs over politics3, where aims are a chieved with internal democratic centralism, wherein constitution decisions are agreed via democracy and every member must support and promote the agreed party form _or_ system of government, essentially a dictatorship of the proletariat government4. Lenin agrees with Marxs ideas concerning nationalism and religion, citing them as part of the false consciousness instilled by the bourgeoisie in facilitating exploitation. It was under Lenin the notion of a magisterial stir and a class war came about, marked changes from Marxs own ideologies. As Lenin said, One cannot be a revolutionary Social-Democrat without participating, according to ones powers, in developing this possibleness Marxism and adapting it to changed conditions.5Thus whilst Marxism heavily influenced Leninism, the latter is a distinctly different adaptation, arguably one which made the October revolution in 1917 possible. Stalinism as a term came to be, in light of one of Stalins associates ingest, Lets replace Lo ng Live Leninism with Long Live Stalinism6Whilst Stalinism has been said to refer to a style of governance, rudimentary principles wherein the supposed deviations from Marxist-Leninism can be found include, sparing policy, collectivization, employ of violence, the rise of bureaucracy and the development of the personality cult. Deciphering what Lenin or Marx would have done is impossible, and indeed the term Marxist-Leninism was coined and used by opposing political groups within 1930s Russia as the ideology which they stood to defend. Regardless, this study aims to assess the extent to which Stalinism and the key principles of his rule up to the end of The Great Terror were in organise by Marxist-Leninism theology.The new economic policy (henceforth NEP) brought forth by Lenin in 1921, was dramatically overhauled through Stalins wave of economic reforms in the early 1930s. Known as the Great Turn, this saw a total transformation of rural and industrial economic handling within Russia. besides despite initially provoking criticism from Trotsky and other members of the Left Opposition, who felt a more internationalist approach to revamping the thriftiness would be appropriate, Stalin and Bukharin had been supporters of the NEP, stating that they believed that it was patriotic and would further Soviet influence and impact in the international constitution7. The reasons for Stalins apparently hypocritical U-turn may on some levels simply be practical responses to crises and yet can simultaneously be interpreted as Stalins first foray into the development of Stalinism. The NEP had secured the rights of individual peasants to sell their products freely, whether to private traders or to aver agencies. Whilst the claim controlled all large enterprises, such as factories, mines and railways, small private enterprises (those employing fewer than 20 people) were allowed. The requisitioning of farm produce was in turn replaced by a tax system and the peasants w ere free to sell their surplus, albeit at a state-regulated price8. The NEP had been Lenins attempt to ensure the selection of the Communist state following warfare Communism which had been implemented from 1914 to 1921, to concur with World War 1 and the Russian Civil War, and to try and rebuild Soviet performance to its pre-1914 levels. It is undeniable to regard the NEP as a concession of key communist values, and indeed Lenin himself saw it as a strategic retreat9. This development of a relative mixed-economy was justified as a form of state capitalism, the last stage of capitalism before socialism evolved.10The corpuscle Crisis of 1928 was arguably the impetus for Stalin to revoke the NEP. As more peasants began consuming their own goods, as contrasted to purchasing the overpriced ones which the small private enterprises were producing, (Peasants controlled 3,140,000km, divided into 25 million holdings, producing 85% of the food, notwithstanding consuming 80% of what the g rew11), a 2 million gross ton short get along of grain occurred in 1928. Requisitioning was launched, leading to a higher expected rate of industrialisation and as a consequence higher agricultural production as more grain was required to feed a growing industrial work force and to pay for imports of machinery through exportation. collectivization was escalated beyond the levels of Sovkhozes advance during the NEP era. There can be little doubt that revoking the NEP was a deviation from Lenins aims, however questions must be asked about the purpose of such a change, whether Stalin ever supported the policy and to what extent was his ultimate rejection of the NEP was in keeping with Communist principles.The purpose of the change is in practical terms a reaction to the Grain Crisis, arguably caused by the greed of the kulaks. However the squeeze requisitioning opened the doors to other more revolutionary forms of governance. The persecution of the bourgeois and the kulaks intensifi ed as Stalin encouraged the blaming of them for the short fall in grain and consequent economic situation. Enterprises across the board became subject to greater instruction and supervision as the state steadily expanded state capital accumulation thus developing a forced rate of industrialisation. The internal party regime was further tightened and show trials were resumed against surviving leaders of check parties. An offensive began against every kind of nationalist tendency. The boundaries of cultural expression were drastically reduced and organised religion became the object of violent assault12. In his initial input in attempts to rectify the grain crisis, Stalin provided a route for an escalated governmental involvement, thereby centralising the Russian state, marginalising and persecuting minority groups, and increasing industrialisation expectations. As serving says, Although agriculture had been the focal point of Stalins initiative in January 1928, he associated himsel f with a much larger agenda Industry, schooling, urban construction and socialist indoctrination were to be prioritised. The state was to become more penetrative and the traditional attachments to religion and nationhood were to disappear.Whether Stalin ever really supported Lenins NEP is essentially questioning whether Stalin intended manipulate the situation in the way that he did. Speaking out in support of the NEP he claimed Either we do it, or we shall be crushed, referring to the need to compete with westerly industrial levels. It is extremely plausible, particularly given his industrial drive which remained for the entirety of his leadership, that Stalins belief that industrial supremacy superseded any economic compromises which may need to be made in order to achieve this. When the NEP wasnt proving to be as successful in producing an industrially prosperous nation, merely bringing it back from the poverty line, a change in strategy would seem to be an appropriate step. H owever, Stalin lived for Bolshevism13and the NEP was seen by many to be an interim measure14regardless. His support for the NEP was probably not due to the doubtfully capitalist elements or the relinquishment of state control, but through a devotion to Lenin and belief in his ability to lead, the fact that supporting the NEP established him as part of the inner circle along with Bukharin, and therefore casting aside Trotsky and other detractors, was likely to have been an additional benefit of expressing his support for this policy.The NEP could not have been classified as a policy borne from strictly Communist principles, defying abolition of private property and centralisation of factories and production by the state elements of the Communist manifesto. This particular policy is a practical compromise of communist principles, deemed necessary in order to rescue the failing economy. In many ways, this may seem to betoken that communist economic management principles are conducive to a successful economy, with capitalist elements used as a rescue method. However, upon Stalins intervention in 1928, and the succeeding phoebe bird Year Plans, which projected capital goods were to increase by 161% and consumer goods by 83%, expectations which were surpassed, the opposite is thus suggested. The question whether a state directed economy or a free-market produce the most successful economy is one which is virtually impossible to answer, given the instability, and varying contributing factors to the economy in question. However, the NEP, whilst not strictly adhering to Communist principles, and thus irritating the Left Opposition and other strict factions of the Communist party, undeniably rescued the economy in the wake of War Communism, whether it could have been saved in another way is a different question, yet the NEP remains a practical concession which arguably must have been made in order to go on to implement other aspects of Communism. As Lenin said, We a re taking one step backward to later off two steps forward.The notion of corporal farming had existed since the Russian Revolution, yet it was under Stalins rule, and in reaction to the Grain Crisis, that collectivization as a policy really took hold and was implemented on serious levels. The unpopularity which requisitioning of the apparent missing grain had had led to a lower grain production, primarily due to lay aside and illegal transfers. By November 1929, the central committee had elected to implement accelerated collectivisation in the form of kolkhozes and Sovkhozes. A primary example of the escalation which Stalins ending of the NEP allowed, collectivisation was in principle in keeping with the Communist ideal. However, the manner in which it was done, and the consequences which unfolded after and the subsequent management must be evaluated in terms of whether the actions interpreted were deviations from Marxist-Leninism, or the implementation of a long held policy.The Communist manifesto states that cultivation of waste lands improvement of the soil equal liability for all to work and agricultural armies are a key part in communism, similarly the 1919 party programme specified that all the running(a) masses without exception must be induced to take part in the work of state administration15. Whilst collectivisation was not specifically mentioned, the idea of complete state ownership of the land with all agricultural workers working together for a common goal remained prevalent. The Kolkhoz charter, produced in 1930, establishes the kolkhoz as a form of agricultural production conjunctive of peasants that voluntarily unite for the purpose of join agricultural production based on incarnate labour and goes on to assert that the kolkhoz is managed according to the principles of socialist self-management, democracy and openness, with active agent participation of the members in decisions concerning aspects of internal life16. This projected utopia appears to be similar to the one which Lenin himself advocated, as Grant says Lenin always advocated the collectivisation of agriculture gradually and by voluntary means. But he never entertained the mad idea that millions of scattered peasant holdings could be forced to collectivise overnight at gun-point. Collectivisation was to take place through example. The peasant was to be convinced by patient argument and through the setting up of model collective farms and the penetration of the latest modern technology, tractors, fertilisers, electricity and schools17. However, by the end of 1928, the number of collective farms was only at 33,300, with only 2.3% of sown area in collective use. Following Stalins policy of forced collectivisation this figure rose to 85,900 collective farms, and 33.6% of sown area in collective use by 193018, and by 1938 there were 242,400 collective farms and 99.8% of sown area in collective use19. However, a key element of the kolkhozes was the voluntary nature of them, and in order to achieve such figures, Stalin embarked on a policy of forced collectivisation, leading to estimated figures of 4 to 10 million deaths due to the poverty which ensued and the violence used to maintain this. The utopia verbalize of in literary works couldnt have been more different to the manifestation of collectivisation under Stalin.Despite the high prediction levels, the first four years of forced collectivisation failed to produce, and there was indeed a fall in agricultural production which in turn led to famine. Bad production, combined with drought and arguably as a consequence of severe animosity towards the policy meant that Stalin and the authorities only persisted to increase the use of violence, implementing more grain seizures and further blaming of the class kulaks for every shortage. In July 1929, it was official policy that terror should be avoided and that kulaks as well as the majority of peasantry ought to be enlisted in collective f arms. By December 1929 Stalin announced that kulaks should be banned from becoming collective farm workers.20Stalin himself prior to this announcement had condemned the class as a whole in Pravda in November of that year saying straight off we have the opportunity to carry out a resolute offensive against the kulaks, break their resistance, eliminate them as a class and replace their production with the production of kolkhozes and Sovkhozes Now dekulakisation is being undertaken by the masses of poor and middling peasant masses themselves who are realising total collectivisation. Now dekulakisation in the areas of total collectivisation is not just a simple administrative measure. Now dekulakisation is an integral part of the creation and development of collective farms. When the head is cut off, no-one wastes tears on the hair.21. both months after this chillingly brutal article, the Politburo approved the liquidation of kulaks as a class. Estimates suggest that about a million k ulak families (totally around five million people) were sent to the forced labour camps, or the Gulags as they were more commonly known22. Due to the kulaks only making up 1-2% of the Soviet population, and being increasingly hard to identify, the Soviet government began to cut off food rations to other social classes, particularly those where there was some degree of collectivisation, for example in the Ukraine. This policy can be linked to the Holodomor famine, which has repeatedly been linked to suspected genocide towards the Ukrainian people, or in a more pragmatical way, as a consequence of the economic policies implemented. The Ukraine was not alone, with the Soviet Union as a whole suffering from a famine in 1932-3. Widely negated as anti-communist propaganda, and denied even in western media at the time, the cycle of forced collectivisation and relinquishment and requisition of crops, poor pay (by 1946, 30 percent of Kolkhoz paid no cash for labour at all, 10.6 percent paid no grain, and 73.2 percent paid 500 grams of grain or less per day worked23), hoarding which then led to a shortfall of grain production, which then instigated another requisition of grain. In an attempt to prevent the hoarding, the Law of the Spikelets was enacted on August 7, 1932, and confiscation of unlimited amounts of grain from peasant households was allowed. winning food was considered theft of socialist property and could result in punishment by death, or a ten-year prison sentence. Even children could be shot for choose up leftover grain in the fields. 125,000 sentences were passed for this particular offence in the bad harvest period from August 1932 to December 193324. The corruption and brutality of the Soviet government extended beyond human lives, with the prices paid for produce hardly changing mingled with 1929 and 1953, meaning that the State did not pay even one third of the cost of production, charging wholesalers 335 rubles for 100 kg of rye, but paid the kol khoz roughly 8 rubles. The business of collectivisation proved to be a massive money-making determine for the Soviet government, and one which looked set to continue to prosper, for the State at least, for a great many years. As until 1969, all children born on a collective farm were forced by law to work there as adults unless they were specifically given permission to leave, which as is to be expected, was very rarely. Despite the October revolution aiming to release the peasants from the hold of the bourgeoisie, a system of neo-serfdom existed, where the Communist bureaucracy replaced the former landowners. As Trotsky criticised, In these conditions an exaggeratedly swift collectivisation took the character of an economic seek25. Whilst Trotsky should be expected to criticise Stalin, Service agrees predominantly with Trotskys assertion social and ideological goals would also be served through mobilisation of the peasants in a cooperative economic enterprise which would produce higher returns for the State and could serve a secondary purpose of providing social services to the people. Thus, the policy of collectivisation and the devastation which it reaped struggles to be seen as merely a practical implementation of the collectivisation policy spoken of by Marx and Lenin. Indeed, the voluntary nature of the initial policy hadnt produced much support, but the manner in which this support was forced upon the Soviet people, produced even less. The brutal nature of the policies and punishments and lack of acknowledgement of the effects forced a wedge between the peasants and the Soviet government. The utopia depicted within the Marxist-Leninism ideal of collectivisation, and whilst this may have not been achievable in practical terms, Stalins alternative, deviated so much from the basic principle of what collectivisation is that it became unidentifiable. It wasnt enough to simply apply an outcome to achieve the utopia, the philosophy and methods, i.e. the volu ntary nature, had to be broadly shared amongst the Soviet people. As it was, the lack of this fundamental confide turned the whole policy into a variant of the serfdom which Communism strove to eliminate and thus undermined the notion of Stalinism being a practical implementation of Marxist-Leninism ideas.The key issue within collectivisation was the replacement of the old bourgeoisie with the bureaucrats of the Soviet government. The rise of bureaucracy was clearly an issue, as there was an increase in the difference between the support standards of the working class and the upper layers of the bureaucracy in particular26. Comprised primarily by the poor economic state of the working class in consequence of collectivisation, yet the bureaucrats acquisition of wealth furthered this gulf, the Soviet state began to represent the antithesis of what Marx and Lenin had proposed. Whilst it is generally acknowledged that those at the top of the party benefited financially and personally from their role, potentially leading to corruption and manipulation of their own purpose, it becomes interesting to see how such an issue developed. As early as 1920, Lenin said that ours is a workers state with bureaucratic deformations27, hauntingly similar parallels can be drawn with the policy of collectivisation. Issues which were around, and in some cases encouraged, during Lenins time, found themselves becoming colossal under the reign of Stalin. Whether the bureaucratisation of the party apparatus was simply an extension of Lenins own leadership, whether it would classify as a deviation or whether it was indeed a wholly new policy, must be examined.The Leninist programme for 1917 included the following points regarding state and bureaucracy the discontinuance of the police and the standing army, abolition of the professional bureaucracy, elections for all unexclusive positions and offices, revocability of all officials, equality of bureaucratic wages with workers wages, the maximum of democracy, peaceful competition amongst parties within the soviets and abolition of the death penalty. As the Italian revolutionary Berneri says prior to his death in 1937, Not a single one of these points in this programme has been achieved.28Whilst Berneri was heavily critical of Stalin as a leader and so his judgement may be impacted by his own dislike for the man, several elements of the Leninist programme were undeniably ignored, or at least undermined, by the actualities of Stalinist bureaucracy. In a speech in 1931, Stalin spoke of the happy life of the people of the Soviet Union. At this time the workers living standards were sub-standard, and the wages of the workers remained depressed throughout the 1930s, despite the colossal gains of the first two Five Year Plans. Yet the happy life was a reality for millions of officials in the state and Communist party they lived very well. In addition to the other privileges of furnish and lodgings, a new network of close d distributors was established and restaurants were reserved for the use of high Communist or non-Party officials. Then special state shops were set up for their exclusive use. In these shops one could buy anything and everything but at prices no worker could afford29. This development created an upper class in a state where there was to be no class divisions, with Lenins maximum of democracy aimed to prevent such a sector developing. Lenin saw that the existence of wage differentials was a survival of capitalism that would tend to disappear as society moved towards socialism. The development of the productive forces would be accompanied by a general improvement of living standards and the inequalities would tend to decrease.30Despite the chasm of difference between Lenins envisaged state and Stalins realisation, Lenin himself admitted that the state he lead did include bureaucratic deformations. However the deformations were trivial compared to the tiered state which formed in cons equence of Stalins encouragement. His dictatorship style of leadership, which allowed him to weed out the members of the Party which disagreed with him allowed him to create a circle of peers who were able to reap the benefits which collectivisation and industrialisation allowed.The crux of the argument rests within the debate of whether Marxist-Leninism was ever a foreseeable policy and whether there was an alternative Communist state than the one which Stalin oversaw. Several key historians claim that Stalins actions were the inevitable continuation of Leninism and there is some evidence to support this. Richard Pipes declares Stalinism the natural consequence of Leninism, as Stalin faithfully implemented Lenins domestic and foreign policy programmes31. Edvard Radzinsky similarly acknowledges that Stalin, as he claimed himself, was the real follower of Lenin32. Robert Service, whilst on the whole condemning the extent of Stalins rule concedes that personally he remained devoted t o Lenin and his rule and keep and reinforced the Leninist regime and this was reflected in Stalins whole-hearted attempts to elevate the memory of Lenin to somewhat of a deity and his development and insistence of Marxist-Leninism. It was under Stalins control which the notion of a Marxist-Leninist ideology was popularised. Indeed the Civil War measures implemented by Lenin introduced the idea of the Red Terror and developed internment camps, Lenin was the instigator of Article 58 in 1927 which condoned the arrests of those suspected of counter-revolutionary activities. The autocratic system within the Communist party was too developed by Lenin33. Lenins ban on factions within the Russian Communist party and introduction of the one-party state in 1921 allowed Stalin to get rid of his rivals easily. In many ways, Stalin can be seen to have utilised Lenins tools the exclusion of alternative ideologies from public life was strengthened, instruments of dictatorship, terror and a politi cised judiciary were furthered with Stalins reliance upon the Gulags and trails of political competitors, such as Bukharin and Trotsky. The states economic control, whilst substansial since the Civil war, was tightened dramatically In particular, the notion of continuing the totalitarianism evident in the earlier Soviet period, the brutal nature of the fighting within the Civil War and October Revolution providing prime examples, is clear in the use of terror as a method of control in the first two decades of Stalins rule.However there are significant criticisms saying that Stalins deviations disfigured Marxist-Leninism beyond recognition. As Roy Medvedev says one could list the various measures carried out by Stalin that were actually a continuation of anti-democratic trends and measures implemented under Lenin in so many ways, Stalin acted, not in line with Lenins clear instructions but in defiance of them. Likewise, Isaac Deutscher, in his biography on Trotsky claims that only t he blind and deaf could be unconscious of the contrast between Stalinism and Leninism34. A more modern criticism comes from Graeme Gill, Stalinism was not a natural flow-on of earlier developments it formed a disconnected break resulting from conscious decisions by leading political actors35. The totalitarian perspective that the negative facets of Stalinism were inherent in Communism from the start is perpetually undermined by attempts to distance Stalinism from Leninism Trotsky